Remotely Sensed Spatial and Temporal Variations of Vegetation Indices Subjected to Rainfall Amount and Distribution Properties

Mohammad Hossein Shahrokhnia , Seyed Hamid Ahmadi , in Spatial Modeling in GIS and R for Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2019

2.3.1.4 Global Environmental Monitoring Index

The GEMI variation was similar to the other two indices of NDVI and GNDVI in each year (Fig. 2-4). The highest peak of the GEMI was observed in 2014 and 2017. Similar to the NDVI and GNDVI, the weighing average of all pixels in an image was calculated and the maximum value between the different dates in a year was recognized as the peak GEMI value. The peak value of the GEMI reached 0.69 in both 2014 and 2017, in which years most annual rainfall occurred (Fig. 2-2). Conversely, the minimum values of the GEMI of 0.57 were observed in 2008, under the lowest annual rainfall conditions. It averaged about 0.57 and did not show any specific maximum peak during the growing season in 2008 (Fig. 2-4). Besides, the GEMI is reasonably correlated with the NDVI and GNDVI by a linear equation (Fig. 2-8) and can be used instead of these indices. A high determination coefficient of R 2=0.90 clearly satisfies the hypothesis that the GEMI should be comparable to the NDVI (Pinty & Verstraete, 1992).

Figure 2-8. Relationship between the GEMI and NDVI and GNDVI for study year. Data are averaged over the region.

(2-8) GEMI = 0.60 ( NDVI ) + 0.36 ( R 2 = 0.90 , n = 30 , p < 0.0001 )

(2-9) GEMI = 0.79 ( GNDVI ) + 0.28 ( R 2 = 0.92 , n = 30 , p < 0.0001 )

However, there are some reasons that GEMI might be more associated with crop cover fractions than the widely used NDVI. It is observed that the slope of the fitted model of the GEMI with the GNDVI (0.79) is higher than the one with the NDVI (0.60). The GEMI is reported as a good predictor of vegetation cover (Leprieur et al., 1994) and is also sensitive to soil reflectance and brightness (Leprieur et al., 1996). In addition, it is widely accepted that the GNDVI is more correlated with the chlorophyll content than the NDVI. Therefore, a better correlation of the GEMI with the GNDVI and their physical concepts, implies that the GEMI would describe crop fraction and status better than the NDVI.

Moreover, when there is no crop cover fraction (i.e., NDVI=GNDVI=0), the GEMI equals to 0.36 and 0.28 in Eq. (2-8) (NDVI) and Eq. (2-9) (GNDVI), respectively. Indeed, in a detailed study, Montandon and Small (2008) analyzed 2906 bare soil samples and reported that unlike the general belief that the NVDI of bare soil should vary between 0 and 0.05, the NDVI of these large samples was around 0.2 with a standard deviation of 0.1. Thus, it seems that the GEMI relationship with the GNDVI resulted in a better match with the Montandon and Small (2008) research than the GEMI and NDVI. Therefore, a higher intercept value in the NDVI than the GNDVI under no cover is another indication of better match of the GEMI with the GNDVI.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128152263000028

Missions and Sensors

S. Cho , ... J.-G. Won , in Comprehensive Remote Sensing, 2018

1.11.2.3.1.3 Development status and plans

GEMS began planning research in 2008, established its basic plans in 2009, has been recognized for its validity through preliminary feasibility study in 2010, has assigned KARI (Korea Aerospace Research Institute) as a codevelopment organization for the environmental satellite development managing organization (2012) and an American company as a codevelopment organization (2013), and is now executing the plan. Moreover, GEMS, as the first geostationary environmental satellite, reviewed and confirmed the technological achievement potential mid-development (Nov, 2013) and is planning to launch in 2019.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489103227

The Role of Environmental Monitoring in Pollution Science

J.F. Artiola , M.L. Brusseau , in Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition), 2019

10.9 Conclusions

Environmental monitoring is critical to the protection of human health and the environment. As the human population continues to increase, as industrial development and energy use continues to expand, and despite advances in pollution control, the continued production of pollution remains inevitable. Thus the need for environmental monitoring is still as great as ever. Continued advances in the development, application, and automation of monitoring devices are needed to enhance the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of monitoring programs. Equally as important is the need to produce more scientists and engineers that have the knowledge and training required to successfully develop and operate monitoring devices and manage monitoring programs.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128147191000100

Environmental Fate and Behavior

A. Covaci , in Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition), 2014

Residue Monitoring

Routine environmental monitoring data may also be used to corroborate and compare conclusions about chemical's behavior that were based on observations from laboratory or field studies. Environmental monitoring generates MECs and involves analysis of soil, water, or air samples for chemicals on an ongoing basis either as part of general government environmental monitoring programs or as part of a specific program by government or industry. For example, governmental sponsored programs have been monitoring pesticide and fertilizer residues, which may reach streams and rivers within farm areas. Also, in selected cases, a pesticide registrant may be required to sponsor regular monitoring of a pesticide as a condition of registration approval.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543010411

MONITORING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

J.F. ARTIOLA , ... M.L BRUSSEAU , in Environmental Monitoring and Characterization, 2004

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Environmental monitoring is the observation and study of the environment. In scientific terms, we wish to collect data from which we can derive knowledge ( Figure 1.1). Thus, environmental monitoring has its role defined in the first three steps of the staircase and is rooted in the scientific method. Objective observations produce sound data, which in turn produce valuable information. Information-derived knowledge usually leads to an enhanced understanding of the problem/situation, which improves the chances of making informed decisions. However, it is important to understand that other factors, including political, economic, and social factors, influence decision making.

FIGURE 1.1. The staircase of knowing. Science-based observations and measurements improve our understanding of the environment and lead to wise decision-making.

 (From Roots, E.F. (1997) Inclusion of different knowledge systems in research. In: Terra Borealis. Traditional and Western Scientific Environmental Knowledge. Workshop Proceedings, Northwest River, Labrador 10 &amp; 11 Sept. 1997. No. 1. Manseau M. (ed), Institute for Environmental Monitoring and Research, P.O. Box 1859, Station B Happy Valley–Goose Bay Labrador, Newfoundland, AOP E10. Terra Borealis 1:42–49, 1998.)

The information generated from monitoring activities can be used in a myriad of ways, ranging from understanding the short-term fate of an endangered fish species in a small stream, to defining the long-term management and preservation strategies of natural resources over vast tracts of land. Box 1.1 lists some recognizable knowledge-based regulations and benefits of environmental monitoring.

BOX 1.1

Knowledge-Based Regulation and Benefits of Environmental Monitoring

Protection of public water supplies: Including surface and groundwater monitoring; sources of water pollution; waste and wastewater treatment and their disposal and discharge into the environment

Hazardous, nonhazardous and radioactive waste management: Including disposal, reuse, and possible impacts to human health and the environment

Urban air quality: Sources of pollution, transportation, and industrial effects on human health

Natural resources protection and management: Land and soil degradation; forests and wood harvesting; water supplies, including lakes, rivers, and oceans; recreation; food supply

Weather forecasting: Anticipating weather, long- and short-term climatic changes, and weather-related catastrophes, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, and tornadoes

Economic development and land planning: Resources allocation; resource exploitation

Population growth: Density patterns, related to economic development and natural resources

Delineation: Mapping of natural resources; soil classification; wetland delineation; critical habitats; water resources; boundary changes

Endangered species and biodiversity: Enumeration of species; extinction, discovery, protection

Global climate changes: Strategies to control pollution emissions and weather- and health-related gaseous emissions

Although Box 1.1 is not exhaustive, it does give an idea of the major role that environmental monitoring plays in our lives. Many of us are rarely aware that such regulations exist and that these are the result of ongoing monitoring activities. Nonetheless, we all receive the benefits associated with these activities.

Recently, environmental monitoring has become even more critical as human populations increase, adding ever-increasing strains on the environment. There are numerous examples of deleterious environmental changes that result from population increases and concentrated human activities. For example, in the United States, the industrial and agricultural revolutions of the last 100 years have produced large amounts of waste by-products that, until the late 1960s, were released into the environment without regard to consequences. In many parts of the developing world, wastes are still disposed of without treatment. Through environmental monitoring we know that most surface soils, bodies of waters, and even ice caps contain trace and ultratrace levels of synthetic chemicals (e.g., dioxins) and nuclear-fallout components (e.g., radioactive cesium). Also, many surface waters, including rivers and lakes, contain trace concentrations of pesticides because of the results of agricultural runoff and rainfall tainted with atmospheric pollutants. The indirect effects of released chemicals into the environment are also a recent cause of concern. Carbon dioxide gas from automobiles and power plants and Freon (refrigerant gas) released into the atmosphere may be involved in deleterious climatic changes.

Environmental monitoring is very broad and requires a multi-disciplinary scientific approach. Environmental scientists require skills in basic sciences such as chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, statistics, and computer science. Therefore, all science-based disciplines are involved in this endeavor.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120644773500035

Radioactivity impact on Japan

Pavel P. Povinec , ... Yutaka Tateda , in Fukushima Accident (Second Edition), 2021

Abstract

Environmental monitoring activities have been carried out by national Japan government, local governments, research institutes and universities in Japan, and worldwide to assess the impact of the Fukushima accident on the terrestrial and marine environments of Japan. The monitoring revealed that heavy radioactivity-contaminated areas appeared within about 50  km of the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP), controlled by land topography as do meteorological factors. Based on the comprehensive monitoring data, levels of the FDNPP-derived radionuclides in terrestrial and marine environments and in food products are discussed in detail.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128244968000018

Microbial indicators and biosensors for bioremediation

Ankita Chaurasia , ... Heykel Trabelsi , in Bioremediation of Pollutants, 2020

15.3 Pollution monitoring

Pollution monitoring refers to the quantitative or qualitative measure of the presence, effect, or level of any polluting substance in a defined environment (air, water, or soil). The accuracy of the measurements is mandatory in order to generate reliable data allowing pollution risk prediction and management. The current monitoring applied methods range from benthic algal communities (Whitton, 2013) to satellite missions equipped with high-performance single and multipolarization synthetic aperture radars (Migliaccio et al., 2015). The biological tools available to monitor environmental pollution are based on biomarkers that are generally native of the site of investigation and exposed to local environmental conditions for long periods of time. The biomarker is a biological response measured in an organism naturally exposed to the site under study that serves as an indicator of the presence and/or the effect of environmental pollutants (Beiras, 2018). Theoretically, the biological response measured should be quantitative, sensitive, and specific. However, technically the three requirements are rarely met at once. Despite the recorded success of the previous methods, and under the pressure of increasing needs for less costly, efficient, and accurate method, researchers were oriented to biosensors as a realistic and reliable alternative. Thus, their involvement is constantly increasing due to their high specificity and sensitivity. Table 15.2 is adopted from the review of Justino et al. (2017) and presents a brief summary of some successful implementations of biosensors in pollution monitoring.

Table 15.2. Examples of biosensors for environmental monitoring.

Pollutants Example Recognition element Biosensor type References
Pesticides Paraoxon Enzyme Electrochemical Justino et al. (2017)
Atrazine Antibodies (monoclonal) Electrochemical Liu et al. (2014) and Belkhamssa et al. (2016b)
Acetamiprid Aptamers Electrochemical Fei et al. (2015) and Jiang et al. (2015)
Pathogens Legionella pneumophila Nucleic acids Optical Foudeh et al. (2015)
Bacillus subtilis Antibodies Electrochemical Yoo et al. (2017)
Escherichia coli Antibodies (polyclonal) Optical Chen et al. (2017)
Toxins Microcystin Enzyme Electrochemical Catanante et al. (2015)
Saxitoxin Aptamers Optical Gao et al. (2017)
Brevetoxin-2 Cardiomyocyte cells Electrochemical Wang et al. (2015)
Endocrine disrupting chemicals Bisphenol A Aptamers Optical Ragavan et al. (2013)
Nonylphenol Antibodies Electrochemical Belkhamssa et al. (2016a)
17β-Estradiol Antibodies Electrochemical Dai and Liu (2017)

To take advantage of the large possibilities brought by biosensors, synthetic biology approaches to engineer metabolite-actuated transcription factors that respond to environmental pollutants were also successful in designing new modular protein-based biosensors able to bind specific chemicals and regulate expression of a genetic program integrated into the microbial host.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128190258000156

Oil Shale

Caineng Zou , in Unconventional Petroleum Geology (Second Edition), 2017

3.5.2 Environmental Monitoring Techniques for Oil Shale Development

Environmental monitoring techniques for oil-shale development are mainly the techniques used to monitor the levels of pollution in air, surface water, and underground water during the development of oil shale; to protect the environment; to achieve sustainable development; and to ensure the comprehensive development and utilization of oil shale. Environmental noise monitoring includes techniques for monitoring air, surface water, groundwater, and environmental noise, as described in the following.

1.

Air environment monitoring monitors SO2, TSP, PMIO, NO2, and CO (normal pollutants) as well as nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), H2S, NH3, and other characteristic pollutants in air.

2.

Surface water monitoring monitors the pH of surface water, potassium permanganate index (CODMn), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), petroleum, ammonia nitrogen, sulfide, cyanide, and volatile phenol pollutants.

3.

Underground water monitoring monitors the total hardness of underground water, petroleum, fluoride, cyanide, volatile phenol, ammonia nitrogen, pH, CODMn, number of bacteria, and coil group.

4.

Environmental noise monitoring is a detection technique of the equivalent noise grade A in succession in oil-shale development environment.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128122341000133

Environmental Exposure Assessment

A. Di Guardo , in Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition), 2014

Monitoring

Environmental monitoring generally provides data on average concentrations in environmental media (air, water, soil, sediment). Peak concentrations are obtained when the measurement is performed at the point of discharge (air, water). While these data are important to estimate the order of magnitude of emissions, they generally do not allow to portrait a complete picture of the concentrations in the environment, because the chemical can undergo a series of transformations and transfer among media before reaching the point of measurement. Monitoring implies a number of activities in order to capture concentrations in the environmental compartments: from the preparation of a statistically sound sampling scheme to the selection of a sampling method, transport, storage, analytical and laboratory requirements for the analysis, as well as data quality and reporting issues.

Samples of air, biota, water, soil, and sediment can be taken by employing several techniques: for example, air can be collected in a cartridge using a pump and a flowmeter to obtain the volume of air measured, water with sampling bottles or automatic sampling devices, soil with a core sampler, and sediment with a grab sampler such as a dredge. Passive sampling techniques can also be used to record concentrations in a certain phase such as air with shielded polyurethane foam (PUF) devices, or water with semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) or solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) techniques. Artificial passive samplers have advantages over the 'natural' passive samplers (such as leaves) in a way that they can be standardized and cleaned up before sampling in order to obtain comparable initial conditions. Passive samplers can also be used to sample a phase (e.g., air) for relatively long time (weeks, months) and therefore detecting chemicals present at very low concentrations. However, their sampling rate depends on a number of environmental conditions (such as temperature, and wind speed, for some air samplers) and specific physical–chemical properties; therefore, they generally provide order of magnitude estimates. Current passive devices also have the disadvantage of generally providing average concentrations of the sampling period and missing the information on peak concentrations.

Planning a monitoring program raises a series of questions, such as those related to which parameters and chemical should be included; and where and when they should be measured. Additionally, it may be inconsistent and produce no results without prior knowledge of the environmental fate of a chemical. Data obtained without a properly selected sampling and statistically sound sampling scheme may produce a poor representation of the spatial and temporal characteristics of the contamination. This means that they can seldom catch the variability of concentration change in a territory in time and the relative spatial gradient. Sometimes, when the amount of spatial data is sufficient, geostatistical techniques can be used to reconstruct a spatial trend (e.g., in soil) but they are usually limited to static representations of contamination at a certain point in time. Finally, environmental monitoring is an a posteriori approach, in other terms the contamination needs to be in place to be measured, while it would of course be preferable to act before a contamination (and a potential damage) has occurred. Finally, monitoring data can be used to gather a picture of the contamination of a certain compartment or a certain ecosystem and later used to 'calibrate' or 'validate' EFMs.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543005534

SAMPLING AND DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

J.F. ARTIOLA , A.W. WARRICK , in Environmental Monitoring and Characterization, 2004

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLING

Environmental monitoring is paradoxical in that many measurements cannot be done without in some way affecting the environment itself. This paradox was recognized by Werner Heisenberg in relation to the position of subatomic particles in an atom and named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. Nonetheless, varying degrees of disturbance are imposed on the environment with measurements. Destructive sampling usually has a long-lasting and often permanent impact on the environment. An example is drilling a deep well to collect groundwater samples. Although here the groundwater environment itself suffers little disturbance, the overlaying geological profile is irreversibly damaged. Also, soil cores collected in the vadose zone disrupt soil profiles and can create preferential flow paths. When biological samples are collected, the specimen must often be sacrificed. Thus, sampling affects an environment when it damages its integrity or removes some of its units. When samples are physically removed from an environment, it is called destructive sampling. Table 2.1 lists some forms of destructive sampling and their relative impact to the environment.

TABLE 2.1. Forms of Destructive Sampling

Sample Type Damage/Duration
Subsurface cores (geologic) Major, permanent
Soil cores Minor, permanent
Plants and plant tissue samples Minor, may be reversible
Animals and animal tissue samples Variable, may be reversible
Water samples Insignificant, reversible
Air samples Insignificant, reversible

Nondestructive sampling, often called noninvasive sampling, is becoming increasingly important as new sensors and technologies are developed. Two major techniques are remote sensing, which records electromagnetic radiation with sensors, and liquid-solid or gas-solid sensors, which provide an electrical response to changes in parameter activity at the interface. The first sampling technique is best illustrated by satellite remote sensing that uses reflected visible, IR, and UV light measurements of the earth's surface. The second technique is commonly used in the direct measurement of water quality parameters such as E.C. or pH with electrical conductivity and H+ activity–sensitive electrodes. Box 2.5 lists common methods that use nondestructive sampling. It is important to note that even "noninvasive" sampling can alter the environment. For example, inserting an instrument probe into the subsurface can alter the soil properties.

BOX 2.5

Nondestructive Sampling

–Satellite-based optical (passive) and radar (active) sensors to measure topography, plant cover, or temperature (see Chapter 11).

–Portable sensors for water quality to measure pH, electrical conductivity (EC), or dissolved oxygen (DO) (see Chapter 9).

–Neutron probes with access tube to measure soil water content (see Chapter 12).

–Time domain reflectometry (TDR) to measure soil water content and salinity (see Chapter 12).

–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (open path) to measure greenhouse gases and hydrocarbon pollutants in air (see Chapter 10).

–Ground-penetrating radar and EC electrodes to measure subsurface geology, particle density, and salinity distributions (see Chapter 13).

These methods are discussed at length in subsequent chapters.

Read full chapter

URL:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780120644773500047